Author Archives: David Holshouser

About David Holshouser

David serves as Associate Professor & Extension Agronomist at Virginia Tech’s Tidewater Agricultural Research and Extension Center. He provides leadership for agronomic extension and research programs that lead to profitable and environmentally-responsible agriculture.

Hurricane Irene May Be Beneficial to Virginia Soybeans …Still Lodging Will Lower Yield Potential

Hurricane Irene roared along the Virginia coast with high winds and significant rainfall.  The rainfall was needed, desperately needed for some parts of the Commonwealth.  On the other hand, the high winds caused considerable lodging to the best looking of Virginia’s crop and this lodging will likely lower yield potential.  But, because the damage to soybean was not as severe as other crops such and corn, cotton, or tobacco, Virginia’s soybean crop may, in the end, benefit from the storm.

Below are the National Weather Service’s average estimates of rainfall received from Hurricane Irene (you can obtain these maps from http://water.weather.gov/precip/).   The greatest amounts occurred in eastern Virginia, but most of our soybean growing regions received rain.  Ironically, the hurricane might have saved the soybean crop on the Eastern Shore, which was very dry.  The rain comes at a very critical time for this year’s crop.  It will insure that pods and seed continue to fill and not abort due to moisture stress.  In most areas, the soil profile should be full; therefore, adequate soil moisture should be available to take us as least to the beginning of the R6 (full-seed, seed meeting each other in the pod) stage.  I am not however implying that the crop is made.  At the beginning of R6, only 50% of the yield is made.  But, cooler temperatures and a few more timely rains should insure good yields.

Now for the down side of the hurricane – lodging.  How much will the lodging from the hurricane cost us in yield?  This will depend on the degree of lodging and the stage that the soybeans were in.  In general, I’d say that our full-season crop is in the R5 (beginning seed) to R6 (full seed) and the double-crop soybeans are somewhere between R4 (late pod) and R5.  Yield is most severely affected when the lodging occurs at the R5 (beginning seed) development stage.  Although yield is still affected at R6, yield losses are only half as severe at this stage.  Many double-crop soybeans are only in the R4 stage throughout the state.  Yield losses due to lodging at this stage is probably not as great as if the crop was in R5, but could greater than if the crop was in R6 (assuming the same degree of lodging).  Still, double-cropped soybeans are usually much shorter and do not have the severe lodging that the more full-canopied full-season crop has.  In general, I’d expect less yield loss for the late-planted crop.

So, what’s my estimate on the amount of loss that we’ll incur?  First, we have to distinguish harvest or traffic loss from physiological yield loss.  Harvest losses can vary anywhere from 3-10% depending on many factors.  In some cases, we may have to run the combine of the most severely lodged soybeans in one direction.  But, with that said, I expect the soybeans to stand up quite a bit as soon as leaves begin falling.  I’ve even seen some recovery only after a few days.

Similar to harvest losses, if we have to drive over the lodged soybean for a late insecticide or another spray, we can see some loss due to running over soybean.  We have data from running over R4 stage soybean to make a fungicide application.  Depending on the size of the sprayer (larger boom widths cause less loss) and row spacing (7.5-inch soybean yield losses were less than 15-inch soybean), losses ranged from 1 to 4%.  Hopefully, we won’t need another insecticide spray.

There is little data on physiological yield loss, but what’s out there seems to be pretty consistent.  What do I mean by physiological yield loss?  That’s the loss in yield from lodging if all of the soybeans that are now on the plant can be harvested.  In controlled studies where researchers simulated lodging and compared it to a crop that was artificially supported, losses have ranged from 0% to over 30%.  Why such a range in yield loss?  It depends on the severity of lodging and the stage of development in which the lodging occurred.

Let’s first address the severity of lodging.  Soybean researchers have traditionally rated lodging on a scale of 1 to 5 as follows:

1.0          = almost all plants erect

2.0          = either all plants leaning slightly, or a few plants down

3.0          = either all plants leaning moderately (45O angle), or 25-50% down

4.0          = either all plants leaning considerably, or 50-80% down

5.0          = all plants down

As you may expect, a rating of 4.0 to 5.0 is very severe lodging.  I have seen this in a couple of locations, but at this time I’d rate most of the lodging between 2.0 and 4.0.  Yield loss will be minimal unless most plants are leaning at a 45O angle or more.  Otherwise, yield losses can range from 10-35%, depending on the stage in which the lodging occurred.

Why does lodging cause yield loss?  It’s not completely clear, but the generally accepted reason is a reduction in net photosynthesis.  With less photosynthesis, there is less energy going to the developing pods and seeds.  When plants are lodged, relatively less of the upper leaves and more of the lower leaves are exposed to sunlight.  The upper leaves are more photosynthetically active and the lower leaves are less active.  When lodging occurs, the entire energy-producing mechanism is disturbed.  In other words, we are now exposing less of the most productive leaves and more of the least productive leaves to the sun.  So, yield will decline.

Let’s assume that lodging rated above 3.0 will cause a 10-30% loss.  Now the severity of the yield loss will depend on the development stage that the soybean plant was in.  As I said earlier, there’s little hard data on this subject, but a few older experiments give us some information.  In a study conducted in 1972-73, S.J. Woods and M.L. Swearingin of Purdue University indicated that the R5 stage was the most critical time for lodging to occur.  At this stage, yield was reduced by 18-32%.  At stages R3 and R6, yield was reduced by 12-18% and 13-15%, respectively.  Details of that experiment are shown to the right.

In that study, the plots were manually lodged with a long aluminum bar at the indicated soybean stage.  Although lodging ratings were not given, I would consider it to be in the 3.5 to 4.0 range from the description given.  Two varieties were tested. ‘Corsoy’ was more susceptible to lodging, but was able to branch more; therefore, it yielded higher when lodged.  ‘Wells’ is more resistant to lodging, but did not branch as much; therefore, was unable to compensate as much for the lodging.  In the natural lodged plots, only slight (2.0 or less) lodging occurred.

From the above data and a few other studies, I’d estimate that where we had moderate to severe lodging and the soybean were in the R4 or R6 stage, we’ll probably lower our yield potential by 10-15%.  If the plants were in the R5 stage and lodging was severe, then losses could be 15-25%.  But, most of our lodging was not likely as severe as in the study.  In general double-cropped soybeans are not as lodged due to their smaller height, therefore will not suffer as much damage.

One more thing must be mentioned.  If soybeans were in even later stages (mid-R6), then yield loss will be less.  Our full-season maturity group 3 soybeans planted in mid-May are getting close to physiological maturity (R7, one pod reaching its final brown color) and some early-maturing group 4 soybeans are well into the R6 stage.  Once a plant reaches physiological maturity, 100% of the dry matter has accumulated; so there will be no yield loss.  Plus, the plants with fewer leaves lodged less.

In summary, there will be some loss in yield potential due to Hurricane Irene.  I must stress that this is loss in yield potential, which is the yield that soybeans would have made after receiving the rain from Irene, but not the wind that caused lodging.  In dry spots or in places that were becoming dry, the hurricane likely benefitted the soybean crop more than it hurt.  Overall, average yields may now be greater than before Irene.

Brown marmorated stink bugs found in high numbers in soybean fields (Dr. Ames Herbert)

Thanks to the conscientious effort of our field scout, Ed Seymore, we have located several soybean fields in Orange County, Virginia (about 20 miles NE of Charlottesville) with large numbers of brown marmorated stink bugs. These high density areas are very much restricted to field edges next to woods, especially where there are groups of tree or heaven. On these field edges we could easily capture 10 to 20 adults and nymphs, or more, in a 15-sweep sample. The ratio of adults to nymphs was heavy on the nymph side, with evidence of old egg masses on the leaves. As best we could determine these infestations went only about 30 feet into the fields, then numbers dropped to 1 to 2, or less per 15 sweeps. There was evidence of feeding with flattened pods and discolored pods with damaged seed. There is no question that these infested areas will suffer from stay green syndrome at the end of the season. We are not sure how widespread this problem is, but are doing what we can to locate other problem areas/fields. So far, we have no other reports. In one field, we were able to put in a couple of fairly primitive insecticide efficacy trials. I use the word primitive because we had to fit plot plans into these narrow field edges with their curves and ups-and-downs (not much flat ground in that part of the state). We hope to take post treatment ratings soon and will post results, if we are successful.

Soybean Rust Update

Below is the latest risk assessment on soybean rust.  Basically, conditions are less than ideal for disease development.  Rust has been identified in Louisiana and Florida, but only on kudzu.  Although a tropical storm or other major weather system could change things, the risk of soybean rust moving into Virginia this year is low.

Virginia AG Pest Advisory – Dr. Ames Herbert


Update on corn earworm and brown marmorated stink bug in the Virginia soybean crop.

The corn earworm pyrethroid vial test data are showing some decline in the percent surviving…which is good. But levels are still high enough to indicate possible control problems. As I said in last weeks advisory, I think high rates of pyrethroids will work well enough in soybean fields with threshold or just above numbers of worms. If we get into a situation like last year with high numbers (e.g., 15, 20, 30 or more per 15 sweeps) then misses are much more likely and non-pyrethroids would be needed to achieve good control. In general, the non-pyrethroids will not do a good job of controlling stink bugs so if they are also present, pyrethroids, which do a good job on stink bugs, would need to be tank-mixed. The CEW moth flight from corn seems to be a little slow in developing. Our traps are catching an average of about 60-70 per night, but elsewhere in the state counts are still pretty low. As far as we can determine, no worms have been found yet in any soybean fields in Virginia. We expect to find some in the southeastern part of the state by next week. It is a bit too early to speculate, but we may have a much easier year this year with fewer infested fields compared with previous years. Our survey for brown marmorated stink bugs started this week and we found them in several soybean fields (Orange and Fauquier Cos.). But they were very scattered in fields and in low numbers (well below 1 per 15 sweeps). We found both adults and nymphs and in one field, egg masses. Delaware reports seeing low numbers in most soybean fields, and I suspect, as we progress with our survey, we will find the same thing. So far, these very low numbers do not represent any threat to the crop. How will this evolve? My best guess is that as populations increase and begin to move from other plant hosts, we may see larger numbers build up toward the end of the season, especially in our double-crop fields.

Virginia Ag Expo – Thurs Aug 4

The 2011 Virginia Ag Expo will be held in Fauquier County on August 4, 2011 starting at 7:30 AM.  This year’s event is hosted by Inglewood Farm, located near Bealeton, VA, and operated by Bill Ritchie.

The VA Ag Expo is the largest agricultural field day held in the Commonwealth of Virginia annually. Over 140 exhibitors and sponsors will have on display all of the most up to date equipment, goods and services for all agricultural producers and property owners no matter how large or small.

Field tours starting at 8:00 AM will include the Virginia on farm corn and soybean variety  plots; soybeans planted following barley versus wheat; slug and nematode control; weed control in corn and soybeans and haying making and storage.

There is no pre-registration or registration fee for attendees.  Lunch will be available for purchase from local civic organizations and vendors.

Please make plans to join us for what should be an enjoyable and educational day in Fauquier County!

 

Foliar Fungicides for Soybean

Ten years ago, few farmers considered applying foliar fungicides for soybeans.  These crop protection products had their home with higher-value crops such as vegetables and peanuts, where a return on investment was more likely.  But with soybean futures topping $13, more growers are using fungicides to protect their soybeans from common diseases and hopefully to increase yields.

The question that is still plaguing nearly everyone is will the fungicides pay for themselves this year?  The answer is really quite simple – We Don’t Know!  Why don’t we know?  First, the fungicides that effectively control our most common soybean diseases, the strobilurin fungicides (e.g., Headline, Quadris, etc.) are preventative.  In other words, they must be applied before the disease develops.  So, we’re applying a chemical to prevent a disease that may or may not progress to yield-reducing levels.  Unfortunately, our ability to predict soybean disease development is not very good.  Therefore, we rely on results from applied research, experience, and the probability of getting a response.

How likely are we to get a response to fungicides in Virginia?  We regularly test fungicides on soybean and have built up a fairly large database.  While disease incidence is reduced with fungicide application, a significant yield response occurs only about 1/3 of the time.  The average yield response is 3 to 4 bushels per acre, regardless of whether we average over only experiments with significant responses or over all experiments.  We’ve seen yield increases up to 12-14 bushels, but that type of response is rare.  So, if you can average 3 to 4 bushels per acre over all acres, then a fungicide will likely pay for itself – unless we experience one of those years where disease is nearly absent (remember how dry it was last year?).  If there’s no disease, we’ve wasted our money.

Although we do not yet have an effective weather model (such as is being used in peanut) that will guarantee success, we can make an informed, although not perfect, decision.  We must remember that three conditions must be present in order for a disease to develop: 1) a susceptible host; 2) the pathogen; and 3) a conducive environment.  This concept is commonly referred to as the plant disease triangle.  If any of these three is missing, then the disease will not develop.  We have the host – soybean.  And we usually have some yield-robbing pathogens present – especially the Cercospora species.  But the variety used must be susceptible to the pathogen.  This includes two things: genetics and stage of soybean development.  From the genetic standpoint, we have many varieties with resistance to frogeye leaf spot (Cercospora sojina), probably the most damaging disease that is annually present in Virginia.  So, if you’re using a frogeye leaf spot resistant variety, response to fungicides is less likely.  Certain varieties are more susceptible to cercospora blight (Cercospora kikuchii); some are less susceptible.  But few have true resistance.  Cercospora blight is likely most responsible for yield loss to to foliar disease and the reason that fungicides prevent soybean yield losses in Virginia.  Regarding stage of development, soybean disease usually appears after full flower (R2) and the soybean are just beginning to pod (R3).  This can be attributed to a larger canopy at this stage (which is related to the environment side of the triangle – see below discussion), but may also be related to physiological changes taking place in soybeans as plants transition from vegetative to reproductive growth.  So if the pathogen is present on a susceptible host, there is a greater likelihood that a disease will develop.  Still, the environment has to be right.

What is the right environment?  Temperatures ranging from 60 to 85 F in periods with moisture provided by rainfall, dew, or high relative humidity is usually required.  The greater number of days that these conditions are met, the more disease there will be. The weather service is pretty good at predicting temperatures, but not so great with rainfall.  Additionally, even if rainfall is predictable, the environment within the soybean canopy (micro-environment) is usually what matters most.  A tall soybean crop that has completely closed its canopy and is growing in good soil moisture will result in a micro-environment more conducive to disease development than a short crop that has not closed the canopy and is growing in a relatively dry soil.

In summary, all three conditions shown on the disease triangle must be present for a disease to develop to yield-robbing levels.  We do not yet have a good model to predict common soybean diseases – but we are working on it.  Until such a model is developed, Dr. Pat Phipps and I suggest the following guidelines on whether or not to spray a foliar fungicide on soybeans:

  • Soybeans are growing well, have a full canopy, and are in the R3 (beginning pod) to R5 (beginning seed) stage.  Research indicates that applying fungicides at R3 is better than later stages.  Note that most fungicides cannot be legally applied after they have reached the R6 (full-seed) stage.
  • Daily air temperatures averaging between 60 and 77 F and accumulations of rainfall were ≥ 0.5 inches in the previous 5 days or ≥ 1.0 inches in the previous 10 days, or periods of relative humidity were ≥ 95% for ≥ 12 hours per day.  The greater number of days that these conditions are met, the greater likelihood for a response to fungicide application.

When soybeans were $5 to 6 per acre, very little foliar fungicide was being applied to soybean.  However with today’s prices, yield is king; therefore, a small yield increases resulting from an external input such as foliar fungicides can be cost effective.